The menstrual cycle regulates migratory CD4 T-cell surveillance in the female reproductive tract via CCR5 signaling.

Despite their importance for immunity against sexually transmitted infections, the composition of female reproductive tract (FRT) memory T-cell populations in response to changes within the local tissue environment under the regulation of the menstrual cycle remains poorly defined. Here, we show that in humans and pig-tailed macaques, the cycle determines distinct clusters of differentiation 4 T-cell surveillance behaviors by subsets corresponding to migratory memory (TMM) and resident memory T cells. TMM displays tissue-itinerant trafficking characteristics, restricted distribution within the FRT microenvironment, and distinct effector responses to infection. Gene pathway analysis by RNA sequencing identified TMM-specific enrichment of genes involved in hormonal regulation and inflammatory responses. FRT T-cell subset fluctuations were discovered that synchronized to cycle-driven CCR5 signaling. Notably, oral administration of a CCR5 antagonist drug blocked TMM trafficking. Taken together, this study provides novel insights into the dynamic nature of FRT memory CD4 T cells and identifies the menstrual cycle as a key regulator of immune surveillance at the site of STI pathogen exposure.

A novel small-molecular CCR5 antagonist promotes neural repair after stroke.

Chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is one of the main co-receptors of HIV-1, and has been found to be a potential therapeutic target for stroke. Maraviroc is a classic CCR5 antagonist, which is undergoing clinical trials against stroke. As maraviroc shows poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, it is of interest to find novel CCR5 antagonists suitable for neurological medication. In this study we characterized the therapeutic potential of a novel CCR5 antagonist A14 in treating ischemic stroke mice. A14 was discovered in screening millions compounds in the Chemdiv library based on the molecular docking diagram of CCR5 and maraviroc. We found that A14 dose-dependently inhibited the CCR5 activity with an IC50 value of 4.29 µM. Pharmacodynamic studies showed that A14 treatment exerted protective effects against neuronal ischemic injury both in vitro and vivo. In a SH-SY5Y cell line overexpressing CCR5, A14 (0.1, 1 µM) significantly alleviated OGD/R-induced cell injury. We found that the expression of CCR5 and its ligand CKLF1 was significantly upregulated during both acute and recovery period in focal cortical stroke mice; oral administration of A14 (20 mg·kg-1·d-1, for 1 week) produced sustained protective effect against motor impairment. A14 treatment had earlier onset time, lower onset dosage and much better BBB permeability compared to maraviroc. MRI analysis also showed that A14 treatment significantly reduced the infarction volume after 1 week of treatment. We further revealed that A14 treatment blocked the protein-protein interaction between CCR5 and CKLF1, increasing the activity of CREB signaling pathway in neurons, thereby improving axonal sprouting and synaptic density after stroke. In addition, A14 treatment remarkably inhibited the reactive proliferation of glial cells after stroke and reduced the infiltration of peripheral immune cells. These results demonstrate that A14 is a promising novel CCR5 antagonist for promoting neuronal repair after ischemic stroke. A14 blocked the protein-protein interaction between CKLF1 and CCR5 after stroke by binding with CCR5 stably, improved the infarct area and promoted motor recovery through reversing the CREB/pCREB signaling which was inhibited by activated CCR5 Gαi pathway, and benefited to the dendritic spines and axons sprouting.

Monoclonal CCR5 Antibody: A Promising Therapy for HIV.

HIV is one of the world's most devastating viral infections and has claimed tens of millions of lives worldwide since it was first identified in the 1980s. There is no cure for HIV infection. However, with tremendous progress in HIV diagnosis, prevention, and treatment, HIV has become a manageable chronic health disease. CCR5 is an important coreceptor used by HIV to infect target cells, and genetic deficiency of the chemokine receptor CCR5 confers a significant degree of protection against HIV infection. In addition, since CCR5 deficiency does not appear to cause any adverse health effects, targeting this coreceptor is a promising strategy for the treatment and prevention of HIV. Monoclonal antibodies are frequently used as therapeutics for many diseases and therefore are being used as a potential therapy for HIV-1 infection. This review reports on CCR5 antibody research in detail and describes the role and advantages of CCR5 antibodies in HIV prevention or treatment, introduces several main CCR5 antibodies, and discusses the future strategy of antibody-conjugated nanoparticles including the potential challenges. CCR5 antibodies may be a novel therapy for treating HIV infection effectively and could overcome the limitations of the currently available options.

Structure-Based Design of Tropane Derivatives as a Novel Series of CCR5 Antagonists with Broad-Spectrum Anti-HIV-1 Activities and Improved Oral Bioavailability.

Blocking the entry of an HIV-1 targeting CCR5 coreceptor has emerged as an attractive strategy to develop HIV therapeutics. Maraviroc is the only CCR5 antagonist approved by FDA; however, serious side effects limited its clinical use. Herein, 21 novel tropane derivatives (6-26) were designed and synthesized based on the CCR5-maraviroc complex structure. Among them, compounds 25 and 26 had comparable activity to maraviroc and presented more potent inhibitory activity against a series of HIV-1 strains. In addition, compound 26 exhibited synergistic or additive antiviral effects in combination with other antiretroviral agents. Compared to maraviroc, both 25 and 26 displayed higher Cmax and AUC0-∞ and improved oral bioavailability in SD rats. In addition, compounds 25 and 26 showed no significant CYP450 inhibition and showed a novel binding mode with CCR5 different from that of maraviroc-CCR5. In summary, compounds 25 and 26 are promising drug candidates for the treatment of HIV-1 infection.

Rational Engineering of a Sub-Picomolar HIV-1 Blocker.

With the aim of rationally devising a refined and potent HIV-1 blocker, the cDNA of CCL5 5p12 5m, an extremely potent CCR5 antagonist, was fused to that of C37, a gp41-targeted fusion inhibitor. The resulting CCL5 5p12 5m-C37 fusion protein was expressed in E. coli and proved to be capable of inhibiting R5 HIV-1 strains with low to sub-picomolar IC50, maintaining its antagonism toward CCR5. In addition, CCL5 5p12 5m-C37 inhibits R5/X4 and X4 HIV-1 strains in the picomolar concentration range. The combination of CCL5 5p12 5m-C37 with tenofovir (TDF) exhibited a synergic effect, promoting this antiviral cocktail. Interestingly, a CCR5-targeted combination of maraviroc (MVC) with CCL5 5p12 5m-C37 led to a synergic effect that could be explained by an extensive engagement of different CCR5 conformational populations. Within the mechanism of HIV-1 entry, the CCL5 5p12 5m-C37 chimera may fit as a powerful blocker in several instances. In its possible consideration for systemic therapy or pre-exposure prophylaxis, this protein design represents an interesting lead in the combat of HIV-1 infection.

Computational study of the structural ensemble of CC chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) and its interactions with different ligands.

CC Chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), a member of the Superfamily of G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs), is an important effector in multiple physiopathological processes such as inflammatory and infectious entities, including central nervous system neuroinflammatory diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, recovery from nervous injuries, and in the HIV-AIDS infective processes. Thus, CCR5 is an attractive target for pharmacological modulation. Since maraviroc was described as a CCR5 ligand that modifies the HIV-AIDS progression, multiple efforts have been developed to describe the functionality of the receptor. In this work, we characterized key structural features of the CCR5 receptor employing extensive atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) in its apo form and in complex with an endogenous agonist, the chemokine CCL5/RANTES, an HIV entry inhibitor, the partial inverse agonist maraviroc, and the experimental antagonists Compound 21 and 34, aiming to elucidate the structural features and mechanistic processes that constitute its functional states, contributing with structural details and a general understanding of this relevant system.

CC chemokine receptor 5 antagonist alleviates inflammation by regulating IFN-γ/IL-10 and STAT4/Smad3 signaling in a mouse model of autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immunopathological disease that causes demyelination and recurrent episodes of T cell-mediated immune attack in the central nervous system. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a well-established mouse model of MS. The roles of T cells in MS/EAE have been well investigated, but little is known about the role of CCR5+ cells. In the present study, we investigated whether treatment with DAPTA, a selective CCR5 antagonist, could modulate the progression of EAE in the SJL/J mice. EAE mice were treated with DAPTA (0.01 mg/kg) intraperitoneally daily from day 14 to day 42, and the clinical scores were evaluated. We further investigated the effects of DAPTA on IFN-γ-, TGF-ß-, IL-10-, IL-17A-, IL-22-, T-bet, STAT4-, RORγT-, AhR-, Smad3-, and Foxp3-expressing CCR5+ spleen cells using flow cytometry analysis. We further explored the effects of DAPTA on mRNA/protein expression of IFN-γ, IL-10, IL-17A, IL-22, TGF-ß, T-bet, STAT4, RORγT, AhR, Foxp3, and NF-H in the brain tissue. The severity of clinical scores decreased in DAPTA-treated EAE mice as compared to that in the EAE control mice. Moreover, the percentage of CCR5+IFN-γ+, CCR5+T-bet+, CCR5+STAT4+, CCR5+IL-17A+, CCR5+RORγt+, CCR5+IL-22+, and CCR5+AhR+ cells decreased while CCR5+TGF-ß+, CCR5+IL-10+, CCR5+Smad3+, and CCR5+Foxp3+ increased in DAPTA-treated EAE mice. Furthermore, DAPTA treatment significantly mitigated the EAE-induced expression of T-bet, STAT4, IL-17A, RORγT, IL-22, and AhR but upregulated Foxp3, IL-10, and NF-H expression in the brain tissue. Taken together, our data demonstrated that DAPTA could ameliorate EAE progression through the downregulation of the inflammation-related cytokines and transcription factors signaling, which may be useful for the clinical therapy of MS.

Rationale of using the dual chemokine receptor CCR2/CCR5 inhibitor cenicriviroc for the treatment of COVID-19.

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has created a global pandemic infecting over 230 million people and costing millions of lives. Therapies to attenuate severe disease are desperately needed. Cenicriviroc (CVC), a C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) and C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2) antagonist, an agent previously studied in advanced clinical trials for patients with HIV or nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), may have the potential to reduce respiratory and cardiovascular organ failures related to COVID-19. Inhibiting the CCR2 and CCR5 pathways could attenuate or prevent inflammation or fibrosis in both early and late stages of the disease and improve outcomes of COVID-19. Clinical trials using CVC either in addition to standard of care (SoC; e.g., dexamethasone) or in combination with other investigational agents in patients with COVID-19 are currently ongoing. These trials intend to leverage the anti-inflammatory actions of CVC for ameliorating the clinical course of COVID-19 and prevent complications. This article reviews the literature surrounding the CCR2 and CCR5 pathways, their proposed role in COVID-19, and the potential role of CVC to improve outcomes.

CCR2/CCR5 inhibitor permits the radiation-induced effector T cell infiltration in pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

The resistance of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is attributed to the immune-quiescent and -suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). We recently found that CCR2 and CCR5 were induced in PDAC following treatment with anti-PD-1 antibody (αPD-1); thus, we examined PDAC vaccine or radiation therapy (RT) as T cell priming mechanisms together with BMS-687681, a dual antagonist of CCR2 and CCR5 (CCR2/5i), in combination with αPD-1 as new treatment strategies. Using PDAC mouse models, we demonstrated that RT followed by αPD-1 and prolonged treatment with CCR2/5i conferred better antitumor efficacy than other combination treatments tested. The combination of RT + αPD-1 + CCR2/5i enhanced intratumoral effector and memory T cell infiltration but suppressed regulatory T cell, M2-like tumor-associated macrophage, and myeloid-derived suppressive cell infiltration. RNA sequencing showed that CCR2/5i partially inhibited RT-induced TLR2/4 and RAGE signaling, leading to decreased expression of immunosuppressive cytokines including CCL2/CCL5, but increased expression of effector T cell chemokines such as CCL17/CCL22. This study thus supports the clinical development of CCR2/5i in combination with RT and ICIs for PDAC treatment.

Mucosa-Associated Invariant T Cell Hypersensitivity to Staphylococcus aureus Leukocidin ED and Its Modulation by Activation.

Mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells recognize bacterial riboflavin metabolite Ags presented by MHC class Ib-related protein (MR1) and play important roles in immune control of microbes that synthesize riboflavin. This includes the pathobiont Staphylococcus aureus, which can also express a range of virulence factors, including the secreted toxin leukocidin ED (LukED). In this study, we found that human MAIT cells are hypersensitive to LukED-mediated lysis and lost on exposure to the toxin, leaving a T cell population devoid of MAIT cells. The cytolytic effect of LukED on MAIT cells was rapid and occurred at toxin concentrations lower than those required for toxicity against conventional T cells. Furthermore, this coincided with high MAIT cell expression of CCR5, and loss of these cells was efficiently inhibited by the CCR5 inhibitor maraviroc. Interestingly, exposure and preactivation of MAIT cells with IL-12 and IL-18, or activation via TCR triggering, partially protected from LukED toxicity. Furthermore, analysis of NK cells indicated that LukED targeted the mature cytotoxic CD57+ NK cell subset in a CCR5-independent manner. Overall, these results indicate that LukED efficiently eliminates immune cells that can respond rapidly to S. aureus in an innate fashion without the need for clonal expansion, and that MAIT cells are exceptionally vulnerable to this toxin. Thus, the findings support a model where LukED secretion may allow S. aureus to avoid recognition by the rapid cell-mediated responses mediated by MAIT cells and NK cells.

Filling the Gaps in Antagonist CCR5 Binding, a Retrospective and Perspective Analysis.

The large number of pathologies that position CCR5 as a central molecular determinant substantiates the studies aimed at understanding receptor-ligand interactions, as well as the development of compounds that efficiently block this receptor. This perspective focuses on CCR5 antagonism as the preferred landscape for therapeutic intervention, thus the receptor active site occupancy by known antagonists of different origins is overviewed. CCL5 is a natural agonist ligand for CCR5 and an extensively studied scaffold for CCR5 antagonists production through chemokine N-terminus modification. A retrospective 3D modeling analysis on recently developed CCL5 mutants and their contribution to enhanced anti-HIV-1 activity is reported here. These results allow us to prospect the development of conceptually novel amino acid substitutions outside the CCL5 N-terminus hotspot. CCR5 interaction improvement in regions distal to the chemokine N-terminus, as well as the stabilization of the chemokine hydrophobic core are strategies that influence binding affinity and stability beyond the agonist/antagonist dualism. Furthermore, the development of allosteric antagonists topologically remote from the orthosteric site (e.g., intracellular or membrane-embedded) is an intriguing new avenue in GPCR druggability and thus a conceivable novel direction for CCR5 blockade. Ultimately, the three-dimensional structure elucidation of the interaction between various ligands and CCR5 helps illuminate the active site occupancy and mechanism of action.

Met-RANTES preserves the blood-brain barrier through inhibiting CCR1/SRC/Rac1 pathway after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice.

BACKGROUND: C-C chemokine receptor type 1 (CCR1) and its endogenous ligand, CCL5, participate in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammatory diseases. However, much remains unknown regarding CCL5/CCR1 signaling in blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). METHODS: A total of 250 CD1 male mice were used and ICH was induced via autologous whole blood injection. Either Met-RANTES, a selective CCR1 antagonist, or Met-RANTES combined with a Rac1 CRISPR activator was administered to the mice 1 h after ICH. Post-ICH assessments included neurobehavioral tests, brain water content, BBB integrity, hematoma volume, Western blot, and immunofluorescence staining. The CCR1 ligand, rCCL5, and SRC CRISPR knockout in naïve mice were used to further elucidate detrimental CCL5/CCR1/SRC signaling. RESULTS: Brain endogenous CCR1 and CCL5 were upregulated after ICH in mice with a peak at 24 h, and CCR1 was expressed in endothelial cells, astrocytes, and neurons. Met-R treatment reduced brain edema and neurobehavioral impairment, as well as preserved BBB integrity and tight junction protein expression in ICH mice. Met-R treatment decreased expression of p-SRC, Rac1, albumin, and MMP9, but increased claudin-5, occludin, and ZO-1 tight junction proteins after ICH. These effects were regressed using the Rac1 CRISPR activator. Administration of rCCL5 in naïve mice increased expression of p-SRC, Rac1, albumin, and MMP9, but decreased levels of claudin-5, occludin, and ZO-1 tight junction proteins. These effects in naïve mice were reversed with SRC CRISPR (KO). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that CCR5 inhibition by Met-R improves neurological deficits after ICH by preserving BBB integrity through inhibiting CCR1/SRC/Rac1 signaling pathway in mice. Thus, Met-R has therapeutic potential in the management of ICH patients.

Therapeutic Perspectives of HIV-Associated Chemokine Receptor (CCR5 and CXCR4) Antagonists in Carcinomas.

The interaction between malignant cells and the tumor microenvironment is critical for tumor progression, and the chemokine ligand/receptor axes play a crucial role in this process. The CXCR4/CXCL12 and CCR5/CCL5 axes, both related to HIV, have been associated with the early (epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasion) and late events (migration and metastasis) of cancer progression. In addition, these axes can also modulate the immune response against tumors. Thus, antagonists against the receptors of these axes have been proposed in cancer therapy. Although preclinical studies have shown promising results, clinical trials are needed to include these drugs in the oncological treatment protocols. New alternatives for these antagonists, such as dual CXCR4/CCR5 antagonists or combined therapy in association with immunotherapy, need to be studied in cancer therapy.

Paradoxical anxiolytic effect of the 'bath salt' synthetic cathinone MDPV during early abstinence is inhibited by a chemokine CXCR4 or CCR5 receptor antagonist.

Chemokine CXCR4 and CCR5 receptors are best known as HIV co-entry receptors, but evidence that CXCR4 or CCR5 blockade reduces rewarding and locomotor-stimulant effects of psychostimulants in rats suggests a role in psychostimulant use disorders. We investigated the impact of CXCR4 or CCR5 receptor antagonism on anxiety-related effects of the synthetic cathinone 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) in the elevated zero-maze (EZM) assay. Rats exposed to a 4-day MDPV binge dosing paradigm and tested 24 or 72 h post-treatment spent more time in the open compartment at the 24-h time point but less time at the 72-h post-binge time point. Daily administration of AMD 3100, a CXCR4 antagonist (10 mg/kg), or maraviroc, a CCR5 antagonist (2.5 mg/kg), during MDPV treatment inhibited the MDPV-induced increase in time spent in the open compartment. Neither antagonist affected the MDPV-induced reduction in time spent in the open compartment at the 72-h post-binge time point. Cocaine, administered in the same paradigm as MDPV, did not increase time spent in the open compartment 24-h post-binge, suggesting specificity to MDPV. The present results identify a surprising anxiolytic-like effect of MDPV 24 h after cessation of repeated exposure that is sensitive to chemokine CXCR4 and CCR5 receptor activity.

CCR5 Blockade in Inflammatory PML and PML-IRIS Associated With Chronic Inflammatory Diseases' Treatments.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a disabling neurologic disorder resulting from the infection of the CNS by JC polyomavirus in immunocompromised individuals. For the last 2 decades, increasing use of immunotherapies leads to iatrogenic PML. Iatrogenic PML is often associated with signs of inflammation at onset (inflammatory PML) and/or after treatment withdrawal immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (PML-IRIS). Although immune reconstitution is a key element for viral clearance, it may also be harmful and induce clinical worsening. A C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) antagonist (maraviroc) has been proposed to prevent and/or limit the deleterious immune responses underlying PML-IRIS. However, the data to support its use remain scarce and disputed. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter retrospective cohort study at 8 university hospitals in France and Switzerland by collecting clinical, biological, and radiologic data of patients who developed inflammatory PML (iPML) or PML-IRIS related to immunosuppressive therapies used for chronic inflammatory diseases between 2010 and 2020. We added to this cohort, a meta-analysis of individual case reports of patients with iPML/PML-IRIS treated with maraviroc published up to 2021. RESULTS: Overall, 27 cases were identified in the cohort and 9 from the literature. Among them, 27 met the inclusion criteria: 16 treated with maraviroc and 11 with standard of care (including corticosteroids use). Most cases were related to MS (92.6%) and natalizumab (88%). Inflammatory features (iPML) were present at onset in 12 patients (44.4%), and most patients (92.6%) received corticosteroids within the course of PML. Aggravation due to PML-IRIS was not prevented by maraviroc compared with patients who received only corticosteroids (adjusted odds ratio: 0.408, 95% CI: 0.06-2.63). Similarly, maraviroc did not influence time to clinical worsening due to PML-IRIS (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.529, 95% CI: 0.14-2.0) or disability at the last follow-up (adjusted odds ratio: 2, 95% CI: 0.23-17.3). DISCUSSION: The use of CCR5 blockade did not help to keep deleterious immune reconstitution in check even when associated with corticosteroids. Despite maraviroc's reassuring safety profile, this study does not support its use in iPML/PML-IRIS. CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE: This study provides Class IV evidence showing that adding maraviroc to the management of iatrogenic iPML/PML-IRIS does not improve the outcome.

CCR5 antagonist treatment inhibits vascular injury by regulating NADPH oxidase 1.

BACKGROUND: Chemokine (C- Cmotif) ligand 5 (CCL5) and its receptor C-C motif chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), have been broadly studied in conjunction with infectious pathogens, however, their involvement in cardiovascular disease is not completely understood. NADPH oxidases (Noxs) are the major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the vasculature. Whether the activation of Noxs is CCL5/CCR5 sensitive and whether such interaction initiates vascular injury is unknown. We investigated whether CCL5/CCR5 leads to vascular damage by activating Noxs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We used rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMC) to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which CCL5 leads to vascular damage and carotid ligation (CL) to analyze the effects of blocking CCR5 on vascular injury. RESULTS: CCL5 induced Nox1 expression in concentration and time-dependent manners, with no changes in Nox2 or Nox4. Maraviroc pre-treatment (CCR5 antagonist, 40uM) blunted CCL5-induced Nox1 expression. Furthermore, CCL5 incubation led to ROS production and activation of Erk1/2 and NFkB, followed by increased vascular cell migration, proliferation, and inflammatory markers. Notably, Nox1 inhibition (GKT771, 10uM) blocked CCL5-dependent effects. In vivo, CL induced pathological vascular remodeling and inflammatory genes and increased Nox1 and CCR5 expression. Maraviroc treatment (25 mg/Kg/day) reduced pathological vascular growth and Nox1 expression. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that CCL5 activates Nox1 in the vasculature, leading to vascular injury likely via NFkB and Erk1/2. Herein, we place CCR5 antagonists and/or Nox1 inhibitors might be preeminent antiproliferative compounds to reduce the cardiovascular risk associated with medical procedures (e.g. angioplasty) and vascular diseases associated with vascular hyperproliferation.

Structure-based identification of novel scaffolds as potential HIV-1 entry inhibitors involving CCR5.

C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), which is part of the chemokine receptor family, is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. The interactions of CCR5 with HIV-1 during viral entry position it as an effective therapeutic target for designing potent antiviral therapies. The small-molecule Maraviroc was approved by the FDA as a CCR5 drug in 2007, while clinical trials failure has characterised many of the other CCR5 inhibitors. Thus, the continual identification of potential CCR5 inhibitors is, therefore, warranted. In this study, a structure-based discovery approach has been utilised to screen and retrieved novel potential CCR5 inhibitors from the Asinex antiviral compound (∼ 8,722) database. Explicit lipid-bilayer molecular dynamics simulation, in silico physicochemical and pharmacokinetic analyses, were further performed for the top compounds. A total of 23 structurally diverse compounds with binding scores higher than Maraviroc were selected. Subsequent molecular dynamics (MD) simulations analysis of the top four compounds LAS 51495192, BDB 26405401, BDB 26419079, and LAS 34154543, maintained stability at the CCR5 binding site. Furthermore, these compounds made pertinent interactions with CCR5 residues critical for the HIV-1 gp120-V3 loop binding such as Trp86, Tyr89, Phe109, Tyr108, Glu283 and Tyr251. Additionally, the predicted in silico physicochemical and pharmacokinetic descriptors of the selected compounds were within the acceptable range for drug-likeness. The results suggest positive indications that the identified molecules may represent promising CCR5 entry inhibitors. Further structural optimisations and biochemical testing of the proposed compounds may assist in the discovery of effective HIV-1 therapy.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Dual role for CXCR3 and CCR5 in asthmatic type 1 inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Many patients with severe asthma (SA) fail to respond to type 2 inflammation-targeted therapies. We previously identified a cohort of subjects with SA expressing type 1 inflammation manifesting with IFN-γ expression and variable type 2 responses. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the role of the chemotactic receptors C-X-C chemokine receptor 3 (CXCR3) and C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) in establishing type 1 inflammation in SA. METHODS: Bronchoalveolar lavage microarray data from the Severe Asthma Research Program I/II were analyzed for pathway expression and paired with clinical parameters. Wild-type, Cxcr3-/-, and Ccr5-/- mice were exposed to a type 1-high SA model with analysis of whole lung gene expression and histology. Wild-type and Cxcr3-/- mice were treated with a US Food and Drug Administration-approved CCR5 inhibitor (maraviroc) with assessment of airway resistance, inflammatory cell recruitment by flow cytometry, whole lung gene expression, and histology. RESULTS: A cohort of subjects with increased IFN-γ expression showed higher asthma severity. IFN-γ expression was correlated with CXCR3 and CCR5 expression, but in Cxcr3-/- and Ccr5-/- mice type 1 inflammation was preserved in a murine SA model, most likely owing to compensation by the other pathway. Incorporation of maraviroc into the experimental model blunted airway hyperreactivity despite only mild effects on lung inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: IFNG expression in asthmatic airways was strongly correlated with expression of both the chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CCR5. Although these pathways provide redundancy for establishing type 1 lung inflammation, inhibition of the CCL5/CCR5 pathway with maraviroc provided unique benefits in reducing airway hyperreactivity. Targeting this pathway may be a novel approach for improving lung function in individuals with type 1-high asthma.